When one ponders the Greek mythology and literature, powerful images invariably
come to mind. One relives the heroes’ struggles against innumerable odds,
their battles against magical monsters, and the gods’ periodic intervention in
mortal affairs. Yet, a common and often essential portion of a heroic epic is
the hero’s consultation with an oracle or divinity. This prophecy is usually
critical to the plot line, and also to the well being of the main characters.
Could Priam have survived in the Achaean camp if not at the gods’ instruction
(200-201)? Could the Argos have run the gauntlet of the Prowling Rocks if not
for the gods’ advice of using a sacrificial bird (349). Moreover, prophecy can
be negative as well as positive. Achilles was prophesied to die gloriously in
battle if he chose his life’s way as a warrior. Oedipus was exiled and
condemned by his own words, after he slew his sire and wed his mother. This type
of prophesy can blind even the gods themselves; Chronos was fated to be defeated
and his throne stolen by his son. Demeter loses Persephone periodically every
year because her daughter ate Hades’ pomegranates. Prophecy plays an important
role in the whole of Greek folklore. Something this ever-present bears further
examination. In The Odyssey, prophecy in its myriad forms affects nearly every
aspect of the epic. Prophecies are seen in the forms of omens, signs, strict
prediction of the future, divine condemnation, and divine instruction. Though
conceptually these forms are hard to distinguish, they are clearly separate in
the Odyssey. Moreover, prophecies can be interpreted not only on the "plot
device" level, but also on the level of characterization. Whether a
character accepts or denies the gods’ prophecies tells the reader something
about the character himself. Omens are brief prophecies intimately connected to
the action at hand, which must be interpreted in terms of that action.
Halitherses comments on the eagle attack after Telemakhos condemns the suitors
(463-464); he correctly interests it to mean that if the suitors keep feeding
off Odysseus’s possessions they will be destroyed. Yet the suitors ignore the
omen, inviting their eventual destruction. This haughty treatment of a divine
omen is a justification for their deaths. When Penelope says if Odysseus had
returned he would, with his son, surely slay the suitors, Telemakhos let loose a
great sneeze (429). This omen reinforces the previous one, and simultaneously
prepares the reader for the carnage to follow. However, not all omens are
effective. In the case of Telemakhos we see many bird omens signaling for him to
do something about the suitors. Whether it was his immaturity to interpret the
bird omens or blind arrogance Telemakhos does not act on them. In fact, it’s
not until Athena comes to him that he thinks to take action against the suitors
in his house. Signs are similar to omens, but differ in one crucial aspect; the
prophesee is looking for a specific omen in order to decide whether he should or
should not take some action. There is only one good example of a sign in the
Odyssey; on page 460, Odysseus asks Zeus for two divine signs to decide if it is
time to slay the suitors. Zeus answers with a thunderclap from a cloudless sky
and allows Odysseus to overhear a maid’s prayer for vengeance. Because of
these signs, Odysseus begins his plan to slay the suitors. Later on, with a
thunderclap Zeus actually signals for the precise time to strike. Signs are
helpful devices; they allow not only a rationalization for when an event occurs
but also shows the approval of the gods on such an action. Not only are signs
and omens plentiful in the Odyssey, but also the type one usually associates
with prophesying, strict prediction of the future, abounds as well. Penelope
states that she will marry the man who can string Odysseus’s bow and perform
his famous feat (469). Since Odysseus is the only one to do so, the prophecy is
fulfilled. This "prophesy" is just a statement of the future; it
contains no judgmental quality whatsoever. Theoklymenos’s prophesies to
Penelope that Odysseus is at hand on the island and plotting vengeance on the
suitors (417) This, of course, is already true, so the prophecy is technically
true as well. However, it makes no judgement on the rightness or wrongness of
either Odysseus’s or the suitors’ position. Teiresias shade’s speech to
Odysseus (333) is a strictly objective foretelling, but nevertheless crucial to
the plot and character development. He states that Odysseus will land on
Thrinakia; that if his shopmates eat Helios’s cattle they will be destroyed;
that Odysseus will make the suitors pay in blood; and that if he makes
reparations to Lord Poseidon he will be granted a gentle sea-borne death. Though
Teiresias S prophecy is devoid of the bias which signs and omens possess, it
contains enough to characterize not only him but also Odysseus. Teiresias is
level headed and just, "forever / charged with reason even among the
dead" (329). Odysseus is characterized by his reply to Teiresias: " my
life runs on then as the gods have spun it" (334). Odysseus does not try to
escape his destiny or change the prophecy to suit his personal desire; he merely
accepts it and thereby accepts the will of the gods. Although there are myriad
examples of divinities avenging themselves on mortals for wrongdoings, there is
only one good example of divine condemnation contained directly within a
prophecy. Aigisthos is warned by the gods not to kill Agamemnot (341), but he
ignores the advice and is eventually slain by Orestes, Agamemnon’s son. By his
very act of not heeding to the prophecy, he invites the gods’ revenge; the
gods avenge themselves by allowing the prophecy to be fulfilled. In this case,
the gods condemn Aigisthos through the prophecy because he did not listen to it
in the first place! Easily the most often seen type of prophesy is that of
divine instruction. A sample follows: Hermes gives Odysseus advice and help on
how to overcome Circe’s trials (323-324); Circe also later tells Odysseus the
route he is destined to take home, and the trials he will face (349-350);
through Calypso, Zeus prophesies that Odysseus will return to the
"civilized world" on Skheria after twenty days at sea (364). A general
relation between a character’s traits and his heeding of prophecies can be
seen when the prophecies are divine instruction. If the character follows the
gods’ advice he will prosper. But the advice is offered not because a man is
prosperous but because he is worthy. Therefore, if a man is worthy, he will
repeatedly receive advice, and vice versa. How is a man worthy? By being brave,
honorable, true, and following the gods’ advice! This relation is strictly a
generalization, but can be applied to the other types of prophecies as well. The
generalization helps us characterize the prophesees by their heeding of the
prophecy. On the negative side, Aigisthos was slain because he didn’t heed the
gods’ warning; this makes him unworthy, which means he wasn’t brave,
honorable, etc. The suitors repeatedly ignored the omens of the gods and
Halitheses’s prophecy; therefore they were unworthy and deserved to die, etc.
On the positive side, because Odysseus is worthy he is brave, honorable, true,
and follows the gods’ advice. Also, because he is worthy the gods offer him
advice. It is circular sequential logic, but it holds in the book. Odysseus
blinds Polyphemus, offends his father, and Poseidon extends Odysseus’s voyage
home. But because Odysseus is worthy and just made an error, the gods guide him
back to reconciliation with the earth-shaker. How? Bad luck leads Odysseus to
Aiaia. There Hermes helps him face Circe. Because of this, Circe leads Odyseus
to the underworld and Teiresias. Teiresias instructs Odysseus on how to appease
Lord Poseidon; Circe tells Odysseus how to get home. Moreover, though it is
difficult to see, prophecies also help characterize the prophesier, in the
Odyssey, mainly the gods. That the gods have the power to see the prophesier, in
the Odyssey, mainly the gods. That the gods have the power to see the future
sets them apart from mortals; that they use this information wisely indicates
that they are responsible beings. That a worthy man like Odysseus continually
follows their advice means that the gods are trustworthy; that they can fulfill
their prophecies even without the prophesee’s cooperation shows that they are
powerful, responsible, trustworthy and aloof. This description is not exact, but
within the superstructure of the Odyssey it is approximately correct. All the
different forms of prophecy, omens, signs, strict prediction, divine
condemnation and instruction, collectively shape character development: many of
the key actions in Homer would not have occurred if the characters failed to
demonstrate faith in prophecies and omens. Though its use as a plot device is
more easily seen, its use for characterization in the Odyssey is far more
important. In previous works, prophecy was used strictly as a plot
rationalization, but in the Odyssey it has a critical role, affecting both the
plot and characters.

BibliographyLawall, Sarah. The Norton Anthology of World Masterpieces. Norton &
Company, New York.1999.