One of the most enduring typological classifications was devised by Jung and has
served as the foundation for the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (Anastasi, 1997).
The Myers-Briggs (MBTI) designates one's personality type, based upon a
classification scheme, which consists of four basic scales and two types within
each scale. Thus, there are sixteen possible Myers-Briggs personality types. The
scheme is based upon the intuitions of Carl Jung, whose gifted insight revealed
that all people at all times are best understood in terms of
extroversion/introversion, sensation/intuition, and objective/subjective. The
latter category has since been subdivided into two classes by revisionists:
feeling/thinking, and perceiving/judging. Classifying people did not originate
with Jung. In the middle of the fifth century B.C.E., Hippocrates explained the
four temperaments in terms of dominant humors in the body: melancholic,
sanguine, phlegmatic, or choleric. The melancholic, he claimed, was dominated by
yellow bile in the kidneys, the sanguine by humors in the blood, the phlegmatic
by phlegm, and the choleric by the black bile of the liver. Hippocrates was
simply adding to the ancient Greek insight that all things reduce to earth, air,
water and fire. Each of the four elements had its dualities: hot/cold and
dry/moist. A person▓s physical, psychological, and moral qualities could
easily be understood by his temperament, his dominant humors, the four basic
elements, or whether he was hot and wet or cold and dry. The ancient personality
type indicator worked for over one thousand years. Today, most of us have
abandoned Hippocrates' personality scheme because we do not find it to have any
meaningful use. In the early 1940`s, Isabel Briggs Myers and Katherine Cook
Briggs began developing the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator to make Carl Jung`s
theory of human personality under-standable and useful in everyday life. The
MBTI is based on Jung`s ideas about perception and judgment. The essence of the
theory is that much seemingly random variation in behavior is actually quite
orderly and consistent, being due to basic differences in the way individuals
prefer to use their perception and judgment. Perception involves all the ways of
becoming aware of things, people, happenings, or ideas. Judgment involves all
the ways of coming to conclusions about what has been perceived. The Educational
Testing Service first published the MBTI as a research instrument in 1962. In
1977, its use began to multiply. The main aim of the MBTI is to identify from
self-report, the basic preferences of people in regard to perception and
judgment, so that the effects of each preference, singly and in combination, can
be established by research and put to practical use. If people differ
systematically in what they perceive and in how they reach conclusions, then it
is only reasonable for them to differ correspondingly in their reactions,
interests, values, motivations, and skills (McCaulley, 1995). At the heart of
MBTI use is the belief that individuals have naturally occurring preferences for
certain attitudes and approaches to the world as well as for certain modes of
perceiving it and making judgments or decisions pertaining to it. These
preferences should not be equated with abilities. Identifying one`s own
preferences can be an aid in seeking work, relationships and so forth, whereby
what comes most naturally to the person will be the very thing that will be the
most demanded, desirable, appropriated, or appreciated. Understanding other
persons` preferences can aid in communication and make working or living
together more effective and satisfying (Carskadon, 1994). McCaulley and Myers
(1985) state that the MBTI differs from other personality instruments in these
ways: It is designed to implement a theory; therefore the theory must be
understood to understand the MBTI. ╥ The theory postulates dichotomies;
therefore some of the psychometric properties are unusual. ╥ Based on the
theory, there are specific dynamic relationships between the scales, which lead
to the descriptions and characteristics of sixteen types. The type descriptions
and the theory include a model of development that continues throughout life.
The scales are concerned with basic functions of perception and judgment that
enter into almost every behavior; therefore, the scope of practical applications
is very wide. The MBTI consists of four separate indices which direct the use of
perception and judgment. The Myers Briggs model of personality is based on four
preferences, which can be seen in Table 1. These preferences affect what people
do in any situation and how they draw conclusions about what they perceive. The
preferences are: 1. Where is your primary source of energy?
(Introversion/Extroversion) 2. How do you prefer to take in information?
(Sensing/Intuition) 3. How do you prefer to make decisions? (Thinking/Feeling)
4. How do you prefer to organize your life? (Judging/Perceiving) Where is your
primary source of energy? Is it from the outer world of activity, and spoken
words or from the inner world of thoughts and emotions? If it is from the outer
world of activity or words, it is called extroversion, denoted by the letter E.
If it is from the inner world of contemplation, or thoughts, it is called
introversion, denoted by the letter I. Extro- is a prefix meaning without and
intro- is a prefix meaning within. During each day, people will undoubtedly
spend time spontaneously doing or saying things, as well as retreating into the
inner world of contemplation and thought. If a persons work day has involved
much interaction with the world, even the clearest extrovert may feel at the end
of the day that they want to be left alone with their thoughts. Conversely, if
an introvert has been working in isolation all day, they may feel that they need
to party in the evening to restore some balance. All individuals need a
particular balance of both introversion and extroversion. Table 2 lists words
and expressions that are often associated with extroversion and introversion.
How do you prefer to take in information? Do you prefer in the form of facts and
details or in the form of patterns and overviews? If it is in the form of facts
or details, it is called sensing, denoted by the letter S. If it is in the form
of patterns or overviews, it is called intuition, denoted by the letter N (N is
used to avoid confusion with introversion). The term sensing is used because
information is taken in primarily by way of the senses. The term intuition is
used because information is perceived primarily in an intuitive fashion. Sensing
tends to be interested in concrete reality, focusing on the present, and seeing
what is, rather than what might be. At an extreme, sensing can have its feet so
well and truly on the ground that it misses out on possibilities for the future.
The preference for intuition gives a greater emphasis on insight and the future,
focusing on what might be, rather than what is. At an extreme, intuition can
focus so much on possibilities that it loses touch with current realities.
Sensing tends to communicate in direct ways, whilst intuition prefers to
communicate in creative ways. Table 3 shows words that are normally associated
with each of these two preferences. How do you prefer to make decisions? Do you
prefer on the basis of logic and objective considerations or on the basis of
personal values? If it is on the basis of logic and objective considerations, it
is called thinking, denoted by the letter T. If it is on the basis of personal
values, it is called feeling, denoted by the letter F. Table 4 lists words often
associated with each of the two preferences. How do you prefer to organize your
life? Do you prefer in a structured way, making decisions and knowing where you
stand or in a flexible way, discovering life as you go along? If it is in a
structured way, making decisions and knowing where you stand, then it is called
judgment. If it is in a flexible way, discovering life as you go along - this is
called perception. Someone whose preference is judgment prefers, in their
lifestyle, to make decisions. This means that they prefer to make decisions
about what to do, where to go, what to say, and so on. As a result of these
decisions, their lifestyle appears organized. Someone whose preference is
perception prefers, in their lifestyle, to learn or experience new things. This
means that they prefer to find out more, rather than making decisions, and are
more comfortable when they keep their options open. As a result of this
openness, they can appear flexible. Table 5 lists words often associated with
each of the two preferences. Combining these four preferences produces a
personality type, such as ENFP (Extroversion, Intuition, Feeling, and
Perceiving) or ISTJ (Introversion, Sensing, Thinking, and Judging). The model is
useful for a wide range of applications, including: interpersonal skills
development, self-awareness, career counseling, psychotherapy, team building and
many other areas. However, as with all personality questionnaires, the results
can be wrong. All questionnaires recognized by the psychological establishments
have reliability and validity research, which shows how wrong on average, they
can be. The questionnaire can provide valuable information, but the real value
of the Myers-Briggs model of personality is in deciding your Myers-Briggs type
for yourself. Everyone's personality reflects all aspects of the Myers Briggs
model. You use extroversion as well as introversion, sensing as well as
intuition, thinking as well as feeling, and judgment as well as perception.
However, the Myers Briggs model implies that each person naturally tends to
choose, where the opportunity allows, one of each of the four preferences,
though the strength of that preference may vary. The letters that represent your
preferences are combined to produce your Myers Briggs Type, such as ENTJ. An
ENTJ prefers extroversion, intuition, thinking and judgment. The ENTJ is likely
to feel energized by having lots of things going on (E). He will tend to
interpret events by seeing patterns or overviews (N). He will tend to make
decisions on the basis of logic (T). And he organizes life on a logical basis
(J). There are sixteen possible ways to combine the preferences, resulting in
the sixteen MBTI types. The MBTI is appropriate for adults and high school
students who can read at least on the eighth grade level. Translations of the
test are being developed in a several other countries. Until carefully validated
translations are available, caution should be used in interpreting the MBTI to
non-English-speaking people (McCaulley, 1995). However, it has been reported
that people in other countries have found the description of their type useful.
The MBTI is published in three forms. Form F consists of 166 items. Form G
consists of 126 items. Form AV is the abbreviated version, which is self-scoring
and only consists of 50 items. If you take the MBTI in a classroom setting you
will most likely be taking Form AV. It is designed for group situations. It is
not recommended when an accurate assessment of type is needed. It consists of
the first 50 items from Form G. It is self-scoring. About 75% of the time,
people`s personality type comes out the same whether using Form G or Form AV.
Form G is the standard form of the test. Form F is only recommended when the
counselor or researcher is willing to share their Form F answers. Form F is used
in ongoing research of the MBTI. Basically the MBTI is self-administering. Most
all instructions are found on the cover to the booklet. Circles need to be
filled in correctly, and only one answer given. There is no time limit but test
takers should not study the items at length. If the question is not understood,
omissions are permitted. Some people will have trouble finding the correct frame
of mind for answering the MBTI. People have a work self, school self, ideal
self, or other self that they may be referring to while answering the questions.
McCaulley says that the frame of reference that is desired in respondents is
what has been termed as the shoes-off self. The shoes-off self▓ fosters an
attitude in which one functions naturally, smoothly, and effortlessly, and is
not going ▒against the grain▓. The function of the MBTI is to
provide the first step toward understanding one▓s natural preference. The
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is now the most widely used personality test
designed for normal individuals, with an estimated two to three million
administrations annually (Carskadon, 1994). Advantages include a relatively
modest expense; an intuitive appeal to a great many students and teachers▓
key concepts that are readily understood, communicated, and applied; abundant
availability of supporting resources; relevance to and use in a broad range of
fields, including education, counseling, business/management, communication,
psychology, and religion; and a positive, non-pejorative emphasis≈no type
is conceptualized as globally ▒better▓ than any other, and usually
everyone feels that he or she got the best one (Carskadon, 1994). Therefore, use
of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator can help people to identify their current
strengths and future growth potentials, as well as giving them a better
understanding of personality so they can appreciate the differences between
themselves and others.

Bibliography
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database on the World Wide Web: http://www.aptcentral.org/aptmbtiw.htm Carskadon,
T.G. (1994). Student Personality Factors: Psychological Type and the
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Handbook of College Teaching: Theory and Applications. (69-81). Westport, CT:
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